How Different People Behave in the Presence of Authority Essay Example for Free

How Different People Behave in the Presence of Authority Essay The survey and behavior study was conducted in a finance office branch of the United States military. The office is comprised of both military and civilian employees as well as several different races and nationalities. A short written survey was conducted in order to discover how the military versus civilian personnel behaved in the presence of authority as well as how different races and nationalities behaved in the presence of authority. These surveys were filled out voluntarily and participants were asked not to include their name on their survey in order to remove any identification or bias. However, they were asked to provide information about their military or civilian status. In addition, observations were also recorded after the survey as the employees went about their normal business activities while at least one authority figure was present. The questions asked are as followed: 1. Do you work harder when an authority figure is present? Why or why not? 2. How do you normally respond to authority while on the job? 3. What do authority figures do to motivate you to work harder? 4. What do authority figures do that causes you to not work as hard? 5. What can authority figures do in the future to motivate you? Combined with the observations this survey provided valuable insight into the differences in behavior among civilian and military employees as well as differences across races and nationalities. The most striking discovery was that military personnel appear to be more motivated when in the presence of authority. From a personal standpoint, this phenomenon may be due to the intense training and fear of punishment within the military. Military soldiers and officers are trained to respond immediately to authority and to refrain from questioning authority. At the same time, military personnel cannot be simply fired from a job as civilians are. In the majority of cases, military personnel sign up for a certain amount of time in the military and failing to meet these obligations is much more complicated than just being fired. This is one possible reason why the military employees within this particular finance office respond so positively to authority figures. Further, the written surveys provided additional support for this theory. The military employees overwhelmingly responded that they were more motivated when an authority figure was present. Similarly, the majority of military employees also answered that this was because they wanted to perform well for their immediate boss but that they also wanted to avoid the humiliation that comes with making unnecessary mistakes. The civilian employees also answered that they were more motivated to work harder in the presence of an authority figure. However, their reasoning was most often due to their fear of losing their job if they did not perform well enough. The questions and observations regarding behavior associated with not working as hard also provided some valuable insight into the differences between military and civilian personnel. The military employees reported that they often were much more at ease when an authority figure was not present but that they could never completely let down their guard. Several of those military employees who participated in the study reported that they felt as if someone was always watching them and that any unbecoming behavior would eventually make its way to their commanding officers which would put their rank and position in jeopardy. In contrast, the civilian employees reported being able to joke around and being a little less focused on their work when an authority figure was not present. However, two of those surveyed responded that they were hesitant to engage in this type of behavior in front of military personnel simply because the military employees did not behave in this way. There were also some important differences found among the different races and ethnicities within this particular finance office. For example, there is one Middle Eastern civilian employee who works in the office as well as one Indian civilian. These two employees are very dedicated to their jobs and work very hard to perform well. They are both very respectful of their white bosses and strive to please them at all times. These two employees were not observed engaging in any different types of behavior when authority figures were not present. Instead, they continued their work as if the authority figure was still in the room. Additionally, they were always careful to make eye contact with the person they were speaking with and were also careful to remain respectful at all times. While the white military and civilian officers were also observed to be respectful and dedicated to their work, they were also more likely to be more relaxed when interacting with authority figures. Further, they were also more likely to have relationships with their bosses in the form of questions about their families and activities when not on the clock. The hours that employees work in this particular finance office are from 0730 until 1600. The observations and survey took place within these hours. The written survey was conducted between 0800 and 0900 and the remainder of the day was filled with observations regarding behavior. The observations provided important insight about the differences in motivation in the morning versus towards the end of the work day. In the morning, the employees were observed sitting at their desks, booting up their computers and getting right to work. There was very little interaction among employees beyond casual greetings until lunchtime. As the lunch break approached the employees could be overheard discussing what to do with their time and generally looking forward to a short break. While the employees returned from lunch and returned right to work the atmosphere remained upbeat. The employees engaged in a little more chatter right after lunch and as the end of the work day approached they once again increased their amount of dialogue. However, it was also observed that the amount of talking was significantly less when an authority figure was present than when an authority figure was not present. Further, the white military and civilian employees engaged in more dialogue with each other than did the other races or nationalities. A final interesting and insightful bit of knowledge that was gained from the survey and observations was associated with the last question: â€Å"What can authority figures do in the future to motivate you? † The majority of participants responded that authority figures would motivate them to work harder through incentives. These incentives did not necessarily need to be tangible goods. Instead, most of the participants felt that praising them for a job well done or thanking them for their hard work was sufficient in making them feel valuable. Further, the participants felt that when their work was noticed it was easier to stay motivated because it helped them improve on their weaknesses by using their strengths. The participants responded that when their efforts were noticed and praised they were more willing and motivated to work on their weaknesses without feeling as if they were bad at their jobs. Overall, the employees within this particular finance office were hard working and dedicated to their jobs. They behaved appropriately in the presence of an authority figure and even though they were more relaxed when an authority figure was not present they were still performing their jobs satisfactorily. The military employees displayed more discipline, possibly because of their training. The Middle Eastern and Indian employees were more reserved and less relaxed than the white employees. The authority figures were not surveyed but were observed and it was noticed that they treated all the employees equally but there were slight differences as well. For example, the authority figures were much more reserved when interacting with the Middle Eastern and Indian employees than they were with the white employees, possibly because they were respecting individual differences. Ultimately, the surveys and observations provided information about the differences among military and civilian employees as well as across different races and ethnicities. While there were several differences, it was noted that each member of this office worked diligently and appropriately at all times.

The Usefulness of Methods in Language Teaching Essay -- Education, Tea

Introduction: Recently a big debate has been aroused on the issue of teaching methods and their usefulness to the actual practice in classroom. Some writers start to claim that methods are dead and are no longer considered in the teaching/learning process such as Brown(2002) . Whereas some others like Bell (2007) think that method still play a vital role in the teaching learning process. This essay will examine both views with relation to my own experience as a teacher and teacher trainer. First I will give a summary of both points of view then will review the usefulness of methods in relation to my profession and context. Summary of the two points of views: Brown (2002) claims the death of methods signaling the post-method era where there is no place for formulas in the second language teaching. Basing his literature in the linguists' findings about the failure of methods to solve the learning/teaching problems. The main attack over the methods is that: Methods are too prescriptive, they are 'laden with interested knowledge' and they can't be empirically proved to work in real classroom. He goes towards the Principles Approach to language teaching with its twelve principles and the three stages of the 'crafted process' of diagnosis, treatment and assessment' to match the different contexts and situations. However, the fact of the uselessness of methods seem to be just in the theoretical phase of it, and as a debate among the linguists according to Bell (2005). David Bells conducted a survey study to measure the extent to which methods are/are not considered in practice in classrooms as an attempt to investigate Block's claim that "Whereas the notion of method no longer plays a significant role in the thinking of applied... ...ot depart from the books they were typed in. How can I - as a teacher- develop certain 'unknown' techniques based on unclear principles? Approaches are always ambiguous specially to the less trained or experienced teachers Richards & Rodgers (2001). We as teachers will always need prescribed methods, not to follow rigidly, but to have more choices. It is always a fact that "there is never was and probably never will be a method for all" Nunan(1991 :228). And there are always " aspects of all methods which might usefully be incorporated into one's classroom practice"( Ibid:248). Conclusion: To conclude, Though methods do not give one-one solution to the problems of teaching and learning, they always give us a rich source of solutions to adapt, modify and develop in our own contexts. We may not be able to claim their death, neither now, nor in the near future.

Be given order description

Free riding can be avoided when group members and leaders ensure that all of them have their own tasks to accomplish toward the attainment of the group’s goal or completing a particular project. This argument is further explored in this essay in addition to previous empirical studies about the theory of social loafers.Free riding theory Free riding theory explains why there are individuals who may choose not to exert little or any effort since they are able to benefit form other members of the group where they belong after all.This theory suggests that an individual’s decision in participating in a group work compares the net expected benefits of exerting effort for the group and the net expected benefits of free riding (Albanese & Van Fleet, 1985). Free riders are individuals or students, in particular, who contribute little or nothing in attaining group goals or working on group projects (Delucchi, 2006). They exist because students differ in their own reasons and mot ivation when doing things, especially when others are involved.While others are trying their best to come up with outstanding projects output, others are simply satisfied with certain extent of accomplishment or results. This is the reason why some group members complain that others are not fulfilling their given responsibilities. Often free riders are seen as exploitative because they usually benefit from the effort of others even if they have not participated or only had little contribution to the attainment of group projects or goals. Advantages and disadvantages of group work The benefits of team or group work are undeniable for studies have proven its effectiveness in student’s learning.According to Eastman and Swift (2002), group work teaches students on how to collaboratively work to become more productive, more efficient, more competitive, and more creative. It also exposes them to different learning experiences and opportunities to improve their skills in organizing, communication, negotiation, problem solving, dealing with higher cognitive and technical aspects, setting goals, leadership, overcoming conflicts and difficulties, delegating work, and dealing effectively with others (Thorley & Gregory, 1994; Buckenmyer, 2000; Colbeck, Campbell, & Bjorklund, 2000).In addition, group work promotes collaborative or cooperative learning though appropriate and innovative learning methods with the use of information technology (Ravenscroft, 1997; Buckenmyer, 2000). Jones and Brickner (1996) stress the bebefits of group work in learning when students are encouraged to become actively involved and aim for development, better in class standing, higher test results, and improved attitudes towards instructor and other students. It does not hinder the students from becoming independent and autonomous learners for group work actually strengthens their capacity to perform better in school and practical situations.On the other hand, Gremler, Hoffman, Keaveney, a nd Wright (2000) found that group members often have difficulty in addressing the free riders for some students have to use words against other members when the teacher finds no proof in determining fair grades. Eastman and Swift (2002) also assert that one of the problems with group projects are the presence of free-riders, also called social loafers, hitchhikers or workhorses (Albanese & Van Fleet, 1985; Cottell & Millis, 1993).Another issue that has to be addressed when it comes to group problem includes the failure of group members to contribute ideas, exchange thoughts, share information and skills or work together effectively in order to accomplish complex tasks (Tullar, Kaiser, & Balthazard, 1998). The lack of coordination can lead to poor results when members are given specific responsibilities without working and consulting each other before a project is almost finished and to be submitted.Moreover, students’ grades could possibly suffer if assigned projects are not given enough time allocation for the students to work together and discuss the topics and management activities in the class to make their work more cohesive. Organizing face-to-face group meetings is difficult and teachers’ assistance is also crucial during the completion period of any group project so they need to allot more class hours for group projects to ensure quality and equal division of labor. Problems in group work, in which all members are assessed as a whole, can be avoided when they provide proof of participation.The free rider issue causes problems in group work for they usually depend on other member’s effort. Students can avoid resentment that free riders are getting the same grade even if they are not as responsible as others in a group by changing class policy or rules, like imposing peer evaluation, requiring checklists, and monitoring (Payne, Monk-Turner, Smith, & Sumter, 2006). Conclusion Albanese and Van Fleet (1985) found that individuals tend t o become free riders when they perceive satisfactory benefits even without contributing their fair share to the group.Free riders are the potential or rationally thinking members that may prefer not to exert great effort in helping others to achieve certain goals but still obtain benefits. When the cost of his effort exceeds the expected outcome of the group’s effort, the free rider is less likely to exert any more effort. In order to avoid such problems including other issues related to group work, changing of class policy can be an effective mitigating measure. References Albanese, R & Van Fleet, D. D. (1985). â€Å"Rational Behavior in Groups: The Free-Riding Tendency. † In Diamond, M. & O'Toole, A. (2004).â€Å"Leaders, Followers, and Free Riders: The Community Lawyer's Dilemma When Representing Non-Democratic Client Organizations. † Fordham Urban Law Journal, 31(2), 481+. Buckenmyer, J. A. (2000). â€Å"Using teams for class activities: Making course/class room teams work. † In Eastman, J. K. & Swift, C. O. (2002). â€Å"Enhancing Collaborative Learning: Discussion Boards and Chat Rooms as Project Communication Tools. † Business Communication Quarterly, 65(3), 29+. Colbeck, C. L. , Campbell, S. E. , & Bjorklund, S. A. (2000). â€Å"Grouping in the dark: What college students learn from group projects. † In Eastman, J. K. & Swift, C.O. (2002). â€Å"Enhancing Collaborative Learning: Discussion Boards and Chat Rooms as Project Communication Tools. † Business Communication Quarterly, 65(3), 29+. Cottell, P. G. & Millis, B. (1993). â€Å"Cooperative learning structures in the instruction of accounting. † Issues in Accounting Education, 8 (Spring), 40-59. In Eastman, J. K. & Swift, C. O. (2002). â€Å"Enhancing Collaborative Learning: Discussion Boards and Chat Rooms as Project Communication Tools. † Business Communication Quarterly, 65(3), 29+. Delucchi, M. (2006). â€Å"The Efficacy of Collaborat ive Learning Groups in an Undergraduate Statistics Course.† College Teaching, 54(2), 244+. Diamond, M. & O'Toole, A. (2004). â€Å"Leaders, Followers, and Free Riders: The Community Lawyer's Dilemma When Representing Non-Democratic Client Organizations. † Fordham Urban Law Journal, 31(2), 481+. Eastman, J. K. & Swift, C. O. (2002). â€Å"Enhancing Collaborative Learning: Discussion Boards and Chat Rooms as Project Communication Tools. † Business Communication Quarterly, 65(3), 29+. Gremler, D. D. , Hoffman, K. D. , Keaveney, S. M. , & Wright, L. K. (2000). â€Å"Experiential learning exercises in services marketing courses. † In Eastman, J. K. & Swift, C. O. (2002).â€Å"Enhancing Collaborative Learning: Discussion Boards and Chat Rooms as Project Communication Tools. † Business Communication Quarterly, 65(3), 29+. Jones, J. D. & Brickner, D. (1996). â€Å"Implementation of cooperative learning in a large-enrollment basic mechanics class. † I n Eastman, J. K. & Swift, C. O. (2002). â€Å"Enhancing Collaborative Learning: Discussion Boards and Chat Rooms as Project Communication Tools. † Business Communication Quarterly, 65(3), 29+. Payne, B. K. , Monk-Turner, E. , Smith, D. , & Sumter, M. (2006). â€Å"Improving Group Work: Voices of Students. † Education, 126(3), 441+.Ravenscroft, S. P. (1997). â€Å"In support of cooperative learning. † In Eastman, J. K. & Swift, C. O. (2002). â€Å"Enhancing Collaborative Learning: Discussion Boards and Chat Rooms as Project Communication Tools. † Business Communication Quarterly, 65(3), 29+. Thorley, L. & Gregory, R. (Eds. ) (1994). Using Group-based Learning in Higher Education. In Eastman, J. K. & Swift, C. O. (2002). â€Å"Enhancing Collaborative Learning: Discussion Boards and Chat Rooms as Project Communication Tools. † Business Communication Quarterly, 65(3), 29+. Tullar, W. L. , Kaiser, P. R. , & Balthazard, P. A. (1998).â€Å"Group work and electronic meeting systems: From boardroom to classroom. † In Eastman, J. K. & Swift, C. O. (2002). â€Å"Enhancing Collaborative Learning: Discussion Boards and Chat Rooms as Project Communication Tools. † Business Communication Quarterly, 65(3), 29+. Sources: Introduction For those who use group projects, the teaching strategy is particularly appealing because of its versatility. Group projects can be organized as short-term or long-term projects. Short-term group projects might have students work together for a class period or part of a class period in an effort to learn more about a particular topic.Long-term projects could be spread out over several class periods, or the entire semester. Regardless of how long the projects are designed to last, research shows a number of benefits of group work. Among others, those benefits that have been identified in the literature include the following: (1) students learn teamwork skills, (2) students improve their critical thin king skills, and (3) students gain more insight about a particular topic. As far as teamwork skills go, surveys of employers show that employers want college graduates to have developed teamwork skills (Blowers 2000).Advocates of group projects suggest that the pedagogical strategy affords students a firsthand experience to gain teamwork skills (Colbeck et al. 2000: Davis and Miller 1996: Young and Henquinet 2000). In this regard, it is believed that group projects â€Å"can effectively serve as a bridge between the academic community and the business world† (Lordan 1996: 43). Ideally, working with their peers, students will learn decision making skills and how to communicate with one another (Dudley, Davis, and McGrady 2001).In addition, the symbolic interactionist in many of us would likely not be surprised by research that shows that group work helps students develop social skills (Andrusyk and Andrusyk 2003). By working with others, students are able to assign meaning to the actions of their peers as well as their own actions. They also receive feedback–formal, informal, or both–from their peers. The feedback combined with their own interpretations of group work should foster growth in terms of students' social abilities.Under the right circum stances, the well designed and implemented group work should also help students develop their critical thinking skills (Colbeck et al. 2000; Dudley et al. 2001). While we are not aware of any studies that have examined how group projects foster the development of critical thinking skills, general findings about group work from past research tacitly suggest that the strategy could be successful in this regard. For instance, some research suggests that group projects help students to address ethical and societal considerations that arise when students work together (Roberts-Kirchoff and Caspers 2001).If the student group is diverse, students will learn about one another's backgrounds, values, and b eliefs. Indeed, others have also suggested that group projects can help students learn about multicultural issues they would otherwise not learn about (Doyle, Beatty, and Shaw 1997). Researchers also suggest that students may learn more about whatever topic is being considered if they work in groups. For example, Adams and Slater (2002) suggest that group work supplementing lectures helps make courses more interesting to students, and subsequently helps students learn more.Most instructors have stood in front of a class only to wonder if their only purpose on that day was to serve as a sedative for the majority of the class. Group work advocates argue that most any topic can be made interesting by actively involving students in the topic through some form of collaborative learning, of which group work is just one strategy. While a number of strengths for this form of teaching strategy have been noted in the literature, potential drawbacks have limited its use. In this study, we cons ider how students believe group projects should be changed in order improve their pedagogical success.METHODS Surveys were distributed to 145 students who had just recently completed a group project. The group project was a semester long group research project that students completed. A survey composed of both open-ended and close-ended questions was distributed to the students at the end of the semester. The results of the open-ended questions have been addressed elsewhere. In one of the close-ended questions, students were asked what they would change about future group projects. The results to this answer were content analyzed using standard rules of content analysis.FINDINGS The students had a number of recommendations for future group work. These recommendations were divided into student centered and faculty centered themes. Student centered themes were those recommendations in which respondents seemed to be offering advice to future students participating in similar projects. These included (1) communication as a value to improve group work, (2) leadership and teamwork, and (3) goal development. Faculty centered themes were those recommendations in which respondents were citing things faculty members could do to improve group work.The following four faculty centered themes were uncovered in the analysis: (1) oversight, (2) grades, (3) situational themes, and (4) anomic themes. Student Centered Themes Communication as a Strategy to Improve Group Work. Several students, recognizing the importance of interpersonal communication, recommended that fellow group project participants hone their communication skills. Students offered tips such as â€Å"Listen to everyone's idea–No matter what it is;† â€Å"Make sure everyone understands the information and the process;† and â€Å"Communication is key. When a group fails to communicate, the group as a whole suffers.† Another student recommended, â€Å"just bonding more† while ano ther cited â€Å"people keeping in touch† as a step to improve group work. Leadership and Teamwork. Students also provided advise suggesting the importance of leadership and teamwork in future group projects. In terms of leadership, students made comments such as the following: * Assigned leaders are needed. * Assign more specific roles. * Need to have defined task assignments for members. Some students provided a bit of detail describing the importance of leadership in group projects. For example, one student made the following comments:It was easier to get the project done by dividing up the work. We worked well together for the most part. One individual has considerable leadership talents and he kept our group on track. Others just deferred to his ideas and we did what he told us to do. He assigned our tasks and made sure they were completed. Another student who made the following comments also described this leadership process: [You need to] learn the habits of others and learning who has the qualities of taking charge of a group. I thought it was interesting to watch who would become the leader and which group would members would follow the leader.With regard to teamwork, students also suggested that, while groups may need a leader, members of the group must be willing to work together. Students made comments such as â€Å"Everyone has to do their part;† â€Å"Everyone working together and doing their part;† â€Å"Teamwork;† and â€Å"Spread around responsibility. † The need to work together appeared to be an especially salient recommendation in this sample. One student emphasized this need in the following manner: â€Å"Everyone has to work together!! † Indirectly indicative of the need to work together, students recognized the need to share all aspects of the project.As an illustration, according to one student, future students doing group projects must remember to â€Å"bring calculators to the restaurant or b ar to figure out a fair tip for the bartender divided five ways. † Goal Development. Some comments made by students also implied the importance of goal development for future group projects. For example, one student advised, â€Å"We all had the same motivation and ambition. † Other students made comments such as â€Å"clarity of goals† and â€Å"commitment to goal† as suggestions for future group. In considering their goals, some students seemed to define their grade as the goal.Said one student, â€Å"If everyone was equally dedicated to getting good grades, or if groups were assigned based no dedication. † Another student recommended that students â€Å"take their job seriously, not just for their grades, but for others' grades. † Faculty Centered Themes Oversight. In terms of faculty centered themes, some students suggested more faculty input in future group projects as a strategy to improve group work. Some students recommended more guid ance in the beginning of the project. One student, for example, said, â€Å"The instructor should assign the topic instead of letting the group pick a topic.† Another student said, â€Å"The teacher could have taught more in the beginning. † A third student called for â€Å"more direction from the instructor,† implying that direction would help in the beginning of the project. Other students recommended assistance in motivating group members. For instance, one student said, â€Å"Specific deadlines may help group members turn in their material in a timely manner. † Grades. Several students offered recommendations for how professors overseeing group projects should grade the projects. One student, for instance, recommended that professors use grades to â€Å"to force the students to participate.† Another student expanded on this recommendation: [You should have] mandatory meetings, groups should be graded on how often they come to the group when the y meet. It would make a person show up more to group meetings because a percentage of his or her grade would depend on it. Other students also resented the fact that â€Å"free riders† were getting the same grade they got and recommended changing this policy. One student said that â€Å"having some of the project reflect individuals so that everyone is not getting the same grade† would help group work.Another student said, â€Å"I didn't like relying on someone else and having it effect my grade point average. † A third student who made the following comments seemed even more concerned about â€Å"common grades† [You need] more accountability for individual work. When my grade depends on the intelligence and responsibility of other people, I get nervous, especially when some don't bother to come to class. Interestingly. when students talked about grades, they were not concerned with what they were learning or doing: rather, they were concerned with almost solely with their grade and whether it was fair.Situational Themes. Situational themes refer to comments that reflected specific dynamics of the group project that instructors could possibly influence. Three situational themes that arose included the number of meetings, time, and location. In terms of the number of meetings, one student recommended that â€Å"Members should meet as frequently as possible. † To be sure, faculty members could require a certain number of group meetings. With regard to time, a student said that â€Å"longer class periods† would improve group work. Another student suggested that â€Å"time †¦and less stress from other courses† would improve group work. While faculty cannot control the amount of stress students feel from their other courses, they can control the amount of class time devoted to a group project. In terms of location, students also made recommendations regarding where the group project work should be done. For exam ple, one student said the following: â€Å"I have trouble doing group work where there are many groups working on different projects in the same room. I like that we were able to meet at different locations outside of school.† Another student also said she had problems meeting in class and recommended â€Å"more discipline from other groups that are in the same vicinity. † Anomic Themes. Some students made comments which we characterized as â€Å"anomic themes† because the students were unable to suggest anything positive about group work, or improving group work. In effect, they seem to exhibit a sense of normlessness or an enormous aversion to group work. For example, when asked what could be done to improve group work, some students made the following comments: * Getting rid of it * Nothing can be done to improve group work.It is inevitable. * There's always going to be problems. Other students provided a little more detail describing their aversion to group work. One student, for instance, said that it is important to remember for future projects â€Å"that there are some people who will never be reliable and some that always have to be the bomb. † Perhaps the most pessimistic comment made was the following: I didn't like anything. We shouldn't have to do group projects or any kind of individual research projects. I don't think research projects will help us in our jobs in the future. Itisn't needed and is a waste of time. It is important to note that the vast majority of students had favorable impressions of the project. DISCUSSION Based on what our students learned, a number of suggestions can be made for future group projects. These recommendations include: (1) overcoming faculty resistance to group work, (2) overcoming student resistance to group work, (3) ensuring students realize the purpose of the project, (4) providing appropriate oversight for students, (5) scheduling the group work appropriately, and (6) helping groups set and attain goals of the project.These suggestions are addressed below. First, enough research has been done to show that group projects, in various forms, can be an important part of students† undergraduate curriculum. Faculty must come to appreciate and realize the importance of these group projects. Of course, group projects are not a panacea and some faculty hold these projects in complete disregard (Ashraf 2004). However, students have much to gain from group projects. Not only will they learn about the topic, but just as important, students will learn important skills, and they will learn about themselves.Certainly, group projects are not appropriate for all courses or all instructors. Still, group projects should be integrated into all majors' coursework in one form or another to ensure that majors are learning how to work together, how to learn from one another, and how to communicate with one another. Second, faculty who implement group projects in their courses w ill need to overcome student resistance to group efforts. This aversion likely stems from the fact that students are accustomed to traditional pedagogical strategies in which instructors lecture to students, who are tested on the lectures.Over one hundred years ago, in The Theory of the Leisure Class, Thorstein Veblin (1899) commented, The aversion to change is in large part an aversion to the bother of making the readjustment which any given change will necessitate †¦. A consequence of this increased reluctance, due to the solidarity of human institutions, is that any innovation calls for a greater expenditure of nervous energy in making the necessary readjustment than would otherwise be the case. Indeed, based on our experiences, we have seen many students expend â€Å"nervous energy in making the necessary readjustment† that makes the accustomed to group work.Imagine for a moment if group work were the traditional and customary teaching style for students. Then, what would happen if we pulled the group out from under them and asked them to do an individual project? Many students would likely have the same aversion that they now have to group work. They'd have to learn new strategies of doing things, and this is something many of us resist. In the end, it seems what is best is to find a blend of teaching strategies in which students are encouraged to work both individually and in groups.Third, and on a related point, faculty should stress to students what they have to gain from group projects. Typically one would expect that the goals of the group project are not just completing the project, but gaining the experience of working together. This aspect of group work should be included on the syllabus so that students realize that the faculty member empathizes with students' concerns. At a minimum, students should be told how group work improves their communication skills, enhances their critical thinking skills, allows for reciprocal learning, and teaches them to work together.From a symbolic interactionist perspective, communicating openly with students about the purpose of group projects will help to give meaning to the students' experiences. Assigning meaning to their experiences before the projects begin will also help better understand one another's actions. They will learn that conflict is possible and that they can overcome this conflict by working together. Moreover, their interactions with members of their groups will help to develop them as novice social scientists (See Berg 2004). Fourth, faculty members should provide appropriate oversight over the groups as needed.It's not just our students who noted the need for oversight Research by Livingstone and Lynch (2000) finds that the degree of faculty guidance will play a role in determining whether the students find value in team-based learning. Oversight is especially important in the beginning stages of the group project when group members are still in the process o f the defining their own roles and tasks as well as their peers' roles and tasks. Part of this direction should be instilling within students the importance of learning teamwork skills (Page and Donelan 2003).Direction may be needed to make sure that students are attending group sessions and working towards the ideals of the group. While group members may do things themselves to encourage participation by fellow group members, ultimately, the instructor has the greatest leverage over students. Describing the direction that faculty members should provide, Lordan (1996: 45) writes, â€Å"Like supervisors in the professional world, the teacher should strike a balance between letting students work out their own problems and stepping in to keep them on track.† As well, instructors need to provide oversight inasmuch as they are helping students find suitable places on campus to do their group work. (They may also want to remind students how to do division long hand so they are able to divide up the tip for the waiter or waitress at the bar or restaurant where they meet with their calculators). Fifth, instructors should make sure students are clear on how they will be graded on group projects. Here, as noted earlier, there is great disagreement among those using group projects as to the best way to assess group projects.Some instructors prefer to give all group members the same grade for the group project. Others see this process as inherently unfair (cites) and call for individual grades. Whatever grading method is used, it is important that students understand the grading process and its rationale. Finally, instructors should play a role in helping groups to define, and refine, their goals. Our experience has been that students tend to define their goals in three stages. First, they begin with aspirations of getting a good grade. The next stage replaces the goal of a good grade with the goal of completing the project successfully.This stage is ultimately rep laced with the goal of a good grade. Instructors can foster better goal attainment by encouraging students to focus more on learning and less on getting a good grade. If groups can define the group's goals, and the members' goals, in a way that they focus more on tasks (e. g. , developing a good research question, gathering literature, developing a methodology, doing the research, analyzing the research, and writing a final paper) and learning rather than getting a good grade, then the likelihood of a successful group project increases.Tying individual goals in with group goals is a central aim of collaborative learning (Johnson and Johnson 1994). Students in this study at least indirectly recognized the importance of meshing their own goals with those of the group. Our intent in this paper is not to be prescriptive but to simply generate thought and discussion about a common type of active learning strategy. We recognize that professors vary in their teaching strategy preferences. We do not expect all professors to want to use group projects in their courses, nor do we expect all courses to be amenable to group projects.Still, it is hoped that all undergraduates will participate in at least some group projects during their undergraduate years. While there are flaws with group projects, the benefits of getting students to work with one another are meaningful enough to rely at least somewhat on group projects in some courses. REFERENCES Adams, Jell and Tim Slater. 2002. â€Å"Learning through Sharing. † Journal of College Science Teaching 31: 384-386. Andrusyk, D. and S. Andrusyk. 2003. Improving Student Social Skills through the Use of Coop erative Learning Strategies. M. A. Research Project, Saint Xavier University, Abstract accessed from ERIC, July 5, 2004.Ashraf, Mohammad. 2004. â€Å"A Critical Look at the Use of Group Projects as a Pedagogical Tool. † Journal of Education for Business 79(4), 213-216. Blowers, Paul. 2003. â€Å"Using Student Skill Assessments to get Balanced Groups for Group Projects. † College Teaching 51(3): 106-110. Colbeck, Carol L.. Susan E. Campbell, and Stefani Bjorklund. 2000. â€Å"Grouping in the Dark. † Journal of Higher Education 71: 60-78. Davis. Barbara and Thomas Miller. 1996. â€Å"Job Preparation liar the 21st Century. † Journal of Education for Business 71 (5): 258-270. Doyle, Eva. Chris Beatty, and Mary Shaw. 1999.â€Å"Using Cooperative Learning Groups to Develop Healthy Cultural Awareness. † Journal of Social Health 69(2): 73-80. Dudley, Lola, Henry David, and David McGrady. 2001. â€Å"Using an Investment Project to Develop Professional Competencies in Introduction to Financial Accounting. † Journal of Education for Business 76(3): 125-131. Johnson, D. W. and R. T. Johnson. 1994. Learning Together and Alone. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Livingstone, David and Kenneth Lynch. 2000. â€Å"Group Project Work and Student Centered Active Learning. â₠¬  Studies in Higher Education 25(3): 325-345. Lordan, Edward. 1996.â€Å"‘Using Group Projects to Sharpen Students' PR Skills. † Public Relations Quarterly 41 (2): 43-47. Page, Diana and Joseph G. Donelan. 2003. â€Å"Team Building Tools for Students. † Journal of Education for Business 78(3): 125-128. Roberts-Kirchoff. Elizabeth and Mary Lou Caspers, 2001. â€Å"Dialogues as Teaching Tools. † Biochemistry and Molecular-Biology Education 29(6): 225-228. Young, Carol B. and Janet A. Henquinet. 2000. â€Å"A Conceptual Framework for Designing Group Projects. † Journal of Education for Business 76(1): 56-60. Brian K. Payne Elizabeth Monk-Turner Donald Smith Melvina Sumter Deportment of Sociology and Criminal JusticeOld Dominion University. Norfolk. Virginia Payne, Brian K. , Monk-Turner, Elizabeth, Smith, Donald, & Sumter, Melvina (2006). â€Å"Improving Group Work: Voices of Students. † Education, 126(3), 441+. COPYRIGHT 2006 Project Innovati on (Alabama); COPYRIGHT 2006 Gale Group Group projects are integral to the business curriculum and can be useful in developing students' skills and abilities as managers. However, faculty encounter several problems with group projects, including assessing students' efforts, aiding good communication and coordination among members, and making sure the project is a truly collaborative effort.Technology may aid in addressing these problems; electronic discussion boards and chat rooms, for example, can help faculty and students enhance collaboration and increase the accountability of group members. Keywords: Discussion boards, chat rooms, collaborative learning, student projects INCREASED GLOBAL COMPETITION and other changes in the business environment over the last several years have led organizations to restructure themselves. One aspect of that restructuring is a shifting of responsibility and decision making downward and a movement toward self-directed work teams (Cohen, 1993).To pr epare students to thrive in this environment, we obviously need to teach them effective teamwork and communication skills. This article describes two tools that can help accomplish this task, the electronic discussion board and the chat room. These can foster interdependence in group projects and deeper, active learning. First, we discuss the need for and benefits of collaborative projects, the problems of group work, and the role of technology in such projects. We then provide recommendations for incorporating these electronic tools in business communication classes.Need for Collaborative Projects in Business Courses As many researchers have noted, the structural shift towards teams occurring in many organizations should be reflected in the classroom (Bobbitt, Inks, Kemp, & Mayo, 2000). Using groups in class thus prepares students to work collaboratively in the business environment while promoting collaborative learning in the classroom itself. The first benefit of group work in th e classroom is that it teaches students how to work collaboratively in the business environment.Business organizations repeatedly indicate that the increased use of teams in the real world has increased students' need for exposure and experience with teams (Buckenmyer, 2000). Companies that use teams creatively spend many hours and dollars training individuals to work in teams and training managers to manage teams. Through working in groups, students can enhance their abilities in setting goals, delegating work, and dealing with conflict (Colbeck, Campbell, & Bjorklund, 2000). They can also improve their communication, leadership, problem solving, and technical skills.All of these skills are highly rated by recruiters and employers and will help graduates meet the demands and rigors of the workplace (McNally, 1994). The second benefit of group work is that these projects promote collaborative learning. University educators have embraced cooperative learning methods as ways to engage students and to foster cooperation (Ravenscroft, 1997). Researchers have found that the values of Generation X are highly individualistic, visually-oriented, and aligned with information technology, not with the sharing of information (Buckenmyer, 2000).Thus, group course projects, with proper guidance, can help these students learn to deal effectively with others. Group work learning can be an excellent way of encouraging the development of higher cognitive skills in students (Thorley & Gregory, 1994) and can be effective even for relatively quiet group members. When groups work well, students consistently fare better in class, on tests, and in attitudes towards the instructor and each other (Jones & Brickner, 1996).The quality of learning is improved by peer support, with students gaining experience in communication, negotiation, organization, and task management. Cooperative methods have been recognized as effective ways to motivate students to become actively involved in learni ng. The collaborative group project creates a forum that allows students to take an active approach towards their own education. The security of working within a group provides an excellent entree into the progression to independent and autonomous learning (Maguire & Edmondson, 2001).Problems with Group Projects The many benefits of collaborative projects, however, are often offset by problems. First, a common problem is the failure of the group to work together effectively. Students may exert an individual effort but are unable to coordinate their efforts effectively with their group members to achieve any kind of synergistic benefits (Tullar, Kaiser, & Balthazard, 1998). Group members need to be contributing their ideas, questioning and learning from each other, and building on the efforts of the other members.For collaborative learning to occur, students must coordinate the diverse skills and abilities of their group members to address a complex task (Tullar et al. , 1998). A sec ond problem is that often group members simply divide a project so that each individual writes a portion. Then, just before the project is due, the students bring in their disks and combine files without coordinating their efforts or talents effectively. Third, group work often leads to unequal contributions of members, resulting in â€Å"hitchhikers† and â€Å"workhorses† (Cottell & Millis, 1993).These â€Å"hitchhikers,† also called â€Å"free riders† and â€Å"social loafers,† can cause problems in the workflow of the group, as they do not do their fair share. Members of the group have difficulty addressing the free-rider problem and documenting the problem and their efforts to solve it (Gremler, Hoffman, Keaveney, & Wright, 2000). The issue becomes one student's word against another's as the teacher tries to determine fair individual grades. Finally, group projects are often assigned without the allocation of class time for groups to develop co operative skills or to become cohesive (Michaelsen, 1992).There is limited time in class to discuss both the needed topics and the mechanics of group management. In many cases, groups meet on evenings and weekends when faculty members are not available for assistance. Additionally, many group members are geographically and temporally dispersed, which makes organizing face-to-face group meetings difficult. The Role of Technology in Enhancing Collaborative Learning Active and cooperative learning approaches will be counterproductive unless they are thoughtfully implemented and well supported.Communication tools like discussion boards and chat rooms can be effective in inter-team collaboration as well as in faculty-student communication. These tools can help ease the problems discussed in the previous section. By solving these problems with technology, faculty can address three learning goals: empowering students, improving their communication skills, and developing their ability to wo rk collaboratively. Finally, these technological communication tools offer teaching opportunities by allowing faculty to be more accessible to students and to track students' efforts better.Addressing Group Project Problems Internet-based tools can be a tremendous help in coordinating team efforts, particularly when the team is geographically (whether by a few miles or a few thousand miles) or temporally dispersed (Kaiser, Tullar, & McKowen, 2000). With technology, groups can meet either synchronously, using chat rooms, or asynchronously, using threaded discussion boards, in which group members contribute to the group discussion at times convenient to their schedules over a defined time period.These tools enable everyone in the group to talk at the same time or at their convenience by typing their comments into the forum that instantly distributes their comments. Additionally, strong personalities have greater difficulty dominating the group as everyone has equal access to the †Å"floor. † Students may feel more comfortable presenting ideas this way than in a face-to-face meeting, and the quality and professionalism of their ideas may be higher, knowing that their participation is being monitored.The discussion forum also gives all students ample time for reflection so students' responses are often more thoughtful than those in face-to-face situations. Studies have illustrated this level of increased and more evenly distributed participation from students in computer-supported groups (Tullar et al. , 1998). Addressing Learning Goals Projects provide opportunities for experiential learning, that is, students apply what they have learned to real-world situations and thus develop decision-making skills. But in doing so, projects often produce anxiety as students struggle to determine what answer the instructor wants.However, with these projects, whether it be a case, a report of a business issue, or a business plan, faculty are typically not searching fo r one right answer, but rather are concerned with the process that students use in solving problems. Teaching students to ask the right questions is thought to be more important than giving students the right answers. In the real world, there is neither one right answer nor is there a â€Å"sage on a stage† that can direct students to the right answer. Students need to learn how to find and to support the answers for themselves.The use of electronic discussion boards and chat rooms can aid student learning in the struggle through the project process. Thus, three learning goals can be addressed through the use of electronic discussion boards and chat rooms with experiential group projects: (1) empowering students to become active participants in their learning, (2) increasing students' communication skills in describing and solving problems, and (3) enhancing students' abilities to collaborate and work with others in developing their own resources in solving problems.To achiev e these goals, education must involve interactivity among instructors, students, and the materials, and electronic discussion boards and chat rooms can enrich that interactivity. Providing Additional Teaching Opportunities Another advantage of these tools is the opportunity for faculty to participate in the discussions and e-mails. Faculty can use these tools to demonstrate concern for students and to provide additional accessibility and feedback.In fact, the transactional distance encourages faculty to maintain a facilitative role rather than an authoritative role (Moore, 1993). Finally, these tools make it easier for faculty and students to keep track of what everyone has said as there is a written record (Kaiser et al. , 2000). Students have the opportunity to reorganize and reshape their understanding of course content. The Web-based tools allow thoughts to be captured for future examination, elaboration, and extension. The end result is usually more robust and thoughtful discus sions.In fact, threaded discussions can extend the time that both instructors and students invest in the course (Bruce & Hwang, 2001). Recommendations for Using These Tools Many universities are starting to use various computer course tools or platforms to promote online learning. These platforms, such as BlackBoard or WebCT, can be used to design either Web-based or Web-assisted courses. For several years, we have used discussion groups and chat rooms in Web-based classes but have also found that communication can be enhanced in traditional classes through use of these tools.Since more business organizations are using electronic tools, such as Lotus Notes, to facilitate group meetings, using them in the classroom helps students further prepare for their careers. However, the wise faculty member will be advised that these tools should be used judiciously. Therefore, based on our experience, the following suggestions are made to faculty who are considering the use of Web-based tools. Discussion Boards Instructors and students can compose and post messages electronically on electronic discussion boards.Both public and private discussion forums can be implemented. With many computing platforms, such as WebCT, faculty can set up public forums to start threaded discussions for the class to which the students can respond electronically. Students can use these public forums to post questions to which the entire class can respond, such as for help in finding information for the project. A project normally seems easier when the instructor is discussing it in class and few questions arise. However, students' questions occasionally occur after class or on weekends.The discussion board allows the opportunity for students to post problems asynchronously and to receive input from the class. The burden is no longer on the instructor to solve every problem as it occurs but is on the students to work with each other as well as with the instructor in solving problems. This is a tremendous lesson for students to learn to deal with problem solving in the real world. When an employer gives an employee a project or task to do, he/she expects the employee to do it on his/her own and not ask for assistance from the employer every step of the way.Students have to learn to be problem solvers on their own, and the use of electronic discussion boards helps develop that skill. The professor's role is to help get the conversation started. For example, the instructor can post a question on the public project discussion board asking at which sites people are having success finding information for the project. The students can then respond. Those students who respond in a useful manner will be rewarded, such as with a participation grade. Those students or groups who do not respond can be asked on the discussion board for their input.When students see the progress other students are making, they may be spurred to work harder. Additionally, the faculty need to check the discussion board frequently to see if any misinformation is being spread, to ensure â€Å"netiquette† is being practiced, and to restart the conversation as needed. Finally, faculty can take questions that the students ask individually and request that the students post them on the discussion board. In that way the instructor only has to respond once, and similar inquiries can then be referred to that response.This will eve ntually build a culture in the class where the instructor is not seen as the sole source for information, and the students learn to work with each other in solving problems. Additionally, instructors can create private forums to be used to divide students into groups for class exercises or for the use of asynchronous coordination of group projects in which group members cannot all meet at the same time. The instructor can visit these public and private forums to track group progress, to encourage students to help each other to solve problems, and to provid e assistance as needed after the students have tried first on their own.In the private group forums, the students are encouraged to use the board to organize group meetings, to post their research findings, and to post drafts of their work for their group members to see and make comments. The professor can encourage individual group members to post their contributions to the paper to the private forum for the other members to see and post suggestions. This would increase group collaboration in a manner that can be documented. After the group has collaborated on a draft of the project, the instructor can offer suggestions.Finally, instructors should consider requiring the groups to post progress reports on their efforts periodically during the term. These progress reports describe what the group has accomplished, what the group's plans are, if there are any problems, and if there are, how they are being addressed. The instructor should provide guidelines as to what the groups should have accomplished by the progress report dates so the students can determine if they are on track. While these reports could be submitted on paper, doing it through the discussion board makes it easier for group m

Democracy versus Authoritarian Regimes Essays - 2898 Words

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